UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA   PUBLICATIONS 

COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 

BERKELEY,  CALIFORNIA 


THE   USE   OF   LUMBER   ON 
CALIFORNIA    FARMS 


BY 
MERRITT  B.   PRATT 


BULLETIN  No.  299 

September,  1918 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  PRESS 

BERKELEY 

1918 


Benjamin  Ide  Wheeler,  President  of  the  University. 

EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 

HEADS   OP  DIVISIONS 

Thomas  Forsyth  Hunt,  Director. 

Edward  J.  Wickson,  Horticulture  (Emeritus). 

Herbert  J.  Webber,  Director  Citrus  Experiment  Station;  Plant  Breeding. 

Hubert  E.  Van  Norman,  Vice-Director ;  Dairy  Management. 

William  A.  Setchell,  Botany. 

Myer  E.  Jaffa,  Nutrition. 

Charles  W.  Woodworth,  Entomology. 

Ralph  E.  Smith,  Plant  Pathology. 

J.  Eliot  Coit,  Citriculture. 

John  W.  Gilmore,  Agronomy. 

Charles  F.  Shaw,  Soil  Technology. 

John  W.  Gregg,  Landscape  Gardening  and  Floriculture. 

Frederic  T.  Bioletti,  Viticulture  and  Enology. 

Warren  T.  Clarke,  Agricultural  Extension. 

John  S.  Burd,  Agricultural  Chemistry. 

Charles  B.  Lipman,  Soil  Chemistry  and  Bacteriology. 
{Clarence  M.  Haring,  Veterinary  Science  and  Bacteriology. 

Ernest  B.  Babcock,  Genetics. 

Gordon  H.  True,  Animal  Husbandry. 

James  T.  Barrett,  Plant  Pathology. 

Fritz  W.  Woll,  Animal  Nutrition. 

Walter  Mulford,  Forestry. 

W.  P.  Kelley,  Agricultural  Chemistry. 

H.  J.  Quayle,  Entomology. 

J.  B.  Davidson,  Agricultural  Engineering. 

Elwood  Mead,  Rural  Institutions. 

H.  S.  Reed,  Plant  Physiology. 

J.  C.  Written,  Pomology. 
jFrank  Adams,  Irrigation  Investigations. 

C.  L.  Roadhouse,  Dairy  Industry. 

O.  J.  Kern,  Agricultural  Education. 

John  E.  Dougherty,  Poultry  Husbandry. 

S.  S.  Rogers,  Olericulture. 

R.  S.  Vaile,  Orchard  Management. 

J.  G.  Moodey,  Assistant  to  the  Director. 

Mrs.  D.  L.  Bunnell,  Librarian. 

DIVISION  OF  FORESTRY 

Walter  Mulford  Charles  H.  Shattuck 

{David  T.  Mason  {Donald  Bruce 

Woodbridge  Metcalf  Merritt  B.  Pratt 


{  In  military  service. 

t  In  co-operation  with  office  of  Public  Roads  and  Rural  Engineering,   U.   S. 
Department  of  Agriculture. 


THE  USE  OF  LUMBER  ON  CALIFORNIA  FARMS 

By  MERRITT  B.  PRATT 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Considerations  in  planning  farm  structures 90 

Adaptability  of  wood  for  farm  use 92 

Suitability 92 

Reasonable  cost 96 

Availability 101 

The  structure  of  wood 102 

Properties  and  farm  uses  of  western  softwoods 103 

Douglas  fir  (Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  Brit.)  103 

Redwood   (Sequoia  sempervirens  Endl.)  - 103 

Bigtree    (Sequoia  gigantca  Dec.) 108 

Western  yellow  pine    (Pinus  ponderosa  Laws.) 108 

Sugar  pine   (Pinus  lambertiana  Dougl.)  110 

The  true  firs: 

White  fir  (Abies  concolor  Lindl.  and  Gord.)] 

Red  fir  (Abies  magnifica  Murray)                    I Ill 

Lowland  fir  (Abies  grandis  Lindley) 

Port  Orford  cedar   (Chemaecyparis  Lawsoniana  Pari.)  Ill 

Western  red  cedar   (Thuja  plicata  Don.) 112 

Incense  cedar    (Libocedrus  decurrens  Torr.)  113 

Western  hemlock    (Tsuga  heterophylla  Sarg.)  113 

Properties  and  farm  uses  of  hardwoods 114 

Key  for  identification  of  woods  commonly  used  by  California  fanners 110 

List  of  circulars  giving  detailed  information  on  the  use  of  western  softwoods  121 


This  circular  aims  to  give  the  farmers  of  California  information 
regarding  the  properties  of  different  woods  available  in  the  state, 
and  the  relation  of  these  properties  to  different  uses  made  of  lumber 
on  the  farm.  It  is  introductory  to  plans  for  farm  structures  prepared 
by  the  Division  of  Agricultural  Engineering,  University  Farm,  Davis, 
California.  These  plans,  which  can  be  borrowed  without  charge  by 
any  farmer  in  California  by  writing  to  the  Division  of  Agricultural 
Extension  of  the  University  of  California,  are  designed  to  meet  the 
demands  made  for  farm  buildings  in  this  state. 


90  UNIVERSITY    OP    CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT    STATION 


CONSIDERATIONS    IN    PLANNING    FARM    STRUCTURES' 

Low  Initial  Cost. — The  first  object  sought  in  any  farm  structure, 
whether  it  be  a  house,  barn,  silo  or  hog-peu,  is  to  provide  in  a  suitable 
manner  for  all  purposes  necessitating  its  erection.  In  most  construc- 
tions, however,  a  wide  variation  in  costs  is  possible,  ranging  from 
a  too  low  first  cost,  which  results  in  unsatisfactory  construction,  to 
an  unduly  high  cost,  which  places  too  great  a  tax  on  the  farm  busiin  ss 
for  the  use  of  the  structure. 

In  every  structure  it  is  well  to  keep  the  first  cost  as  low  as  con- 
sistent with  proper  construction,  bearing  in  mind  that  the  first  cost 
of  a  structure  influences  to  some  extent  the  resulting  upkeep  cost. 
That  is,  a  well-built  structure  may  amount  to  relatively  more  in  orig- 
inal cost  than  a  poorly  constructed  one,  but  the  greater  cost  may  be 
justified  in  view  of  subsequent  reduced  upkeep  cost. 

Structures  are  not  in  themselves  direct  producers  of  income  but 
rather  contribute  as  aids  to  production.  The  less  the  expenditure 
involved  in  structures,  the  smaller  are  the  charges  to  be  met  by  the 
business. 

For  the  use  of  structures  the  farm  must  pay  for  upkeep — repairs, 
replacement  and  protection — and  the  overhead  charges  of  interest  on 
all  money  spent  upon  the  structure.  As  these  charges  must  be  met 
by  the  sale  of  products,  the  lower  the  charges  the  better  do  the  struc- 
tures meet  the  need  for  which  they  were  erected. 

Suppose  a  farmer  plans  the  erection  of  certain  buildings,  and  two 
kinds  of  structures  are  possible,  one  costing  $1200  and  the  other  $5000. 
Assuming  the  more  costly  is  longer  lived,  the  detailed  annual  charges 
which  the  farm  must  meet  for  the  use  of  these  buildings  will  be 
about  as  follows : 

6  per  cent  interest  on  the  money  invested. 
4  per  cent  of  original  cost  for  repairs  of  the  $1200  buildings. 
3  per  cent  of  original  cost  for  repairs  of  the  $5000  buildings. 
3  per  cent  of  original  cost  for  depreciation  of  the  $1200  build- 
ings. 
2  per  cent  of  original  cost  for  depreciation  of  the  $5000  build- 
ings. 
This  means  a  total  annual  charge  for  the  use  of  the  buildings  of : 
$124  for  structures  costing  $1200. 
$393  for  structures  costing  $5000. 


1  Prepared  by  Eiehard  L.  Adams  of  the  Division  of  Agronomy.     Photos  1,  2,  3, 
4,  and  5  by  Professor  E.  L.  Adams. 


THE  USE  OF  LUMBER  ON  CALIFORNIA  FARMS  91 

If  the  size  of  the  ranch  is  40  acres,  each  acre  will  be  called  upon 
to  bear  its  pro  rata  of  the  annual  charge  to  the  extent  of : 
$3.10  for  the  $1200  buildings,  as  against 
$9.82  for  the  $5000  buildings. 

Low  Upkeep  Cost. — The  amount  of  painting,  replacement,  and 
repairs  varies  with  different  structures,  and  constitutes  an  annual 
upkeep  factor  to  be  borne  in  mind  in  planning  structures.  It  is 
desirable  to  determine  which  factor  shall  rule :  a  low  original  cost 
with  resulting  high  annual  upkeep  cost ;  or  the  reverse,  a  relatively 
high  original  cost  with  a  correspondingly  low  annual  charge  for 
maintenance.  In  every  instance,  upkeep  cost  should  be  as  low  as 
is  consistent  with  the  original  cost  and  use  of  a  structure. 

Factors  Determining  Type  of  Construction. — The  type  of  con- 
struction is  determined  by  the  nature  of  the  use  to  which  the  structure 
is  to  be  put  and  the  local  climatic  condition. 

A  horse  barn,  for  instance,  must  combine  qualities  different  from 
those  demanded  of  a  warehouse  for  the  storage  of  grain.  The  latter 
must  not  include  to  any  extent  ventilation,  freedom  from  drafts, 
sanitary  convenience,  comfort  or  warmth — qualities  very  necessary  in 
a  structure  designed  for  the  protection  of  stock.  A  plan  for  a  ditch 
structure  must  consider  stability,  permanency,  water  tightness,  safety 
and  low  initial  cost.  Ditch  structures  for  sandy  land  should  be  of 
somewhat  different  construction  from  those  in  heavy  clay  soil  due  to 
the  greater  liability  of  erosion  and  seepage. 

A  portable  field  shelter  for  stock  will  necessitate  light  construction 
to  permit  moving  it  from  place  to  place.  Hay  barns  will  vary  in  the 
degree  of  stability  to  be  provided,  depending  on.  whether  the  hay  is 
to  be  stored  on  the  ground  or  in  an  overhead  mow,  and  on  the  exposure 
to  wind.  Bridges  for  use  of  tractors  demand  heavier  construction 
than  for  small  team  loads.  The  man  whose  dairy  is  to  be  permanent 
will  usually  favor  a  more  substantial  silo  than  he  who  is  embarking 
in  dairying  as  an  experiment  and  may  later  conclude  to  eliminate  cows. 

As  to  the  difference  in  construction  necessitated  by  climatic  con- 
ditions, one  need  only  compare  the  widely  different  conditions  for 
stock  protection  to  be  met,  for  instance,  in  Humboldt  County,  having 
an  annual  mean  rainfall  of  38  inches,  128  rainy  days,  88  clear  days, 
and  temperatures  rising  and  falling  between  30°  and  74°,  with  the 
Imperial  Valley  with  less  than  3  inches  of  rainfall.  11  rainy  days,  312 
days  of  sunshine  annually,  and  temperatures  of  from  25°  to  114°  F. 
The  kind  of  protection  to  be  provided  against  the  cold  and  wet  of  the 
rainy  season  and  the  heat  of  the  dry  season  varies  greatly  in  the  two 


92  UNIVERSITY    OP    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

sections,  while  the  life  of  building  materials  will  not  be  the  same 
under  two  snch  widely  different  environments. 

ADAPTABILITY    OF   WOOD    FOR    FARM    USE 

When  the  tjrpe  of  farm  structure  suitable  for  the  demands  to  be 
made  upon  it  is  determined,  there  follows  a  consideration  of  the 
materials  for  its  construction. 

Under  California  conditions  wood  is  the  favorite  farm  building 
material  because  of  its  suitability,  reasonable  cost  and  availability. 
Moreover,  the  working  up  of  lumber  is  best  understood  by  the  average 
man,  the  left-overs  can  be  utilized  for  odd  jobs  or  for  fire  wood,  while 
second-hand  material  has  a  substantial  value  for  many  purposes 
around  the  farm. 

All  factors  considered,  the  farmer  finds  wood  the  best  all-around 
material  for  the  majority  of  farm  uses,  and  therefore  it  is  important 
that  he  should  know  something  of  the  various  woods  available,  their 
suitability  for  farm  uses,  and  how  to  buy  intelligently  for  a  definite 
purpose. 

SUITABILITY  OF  WOOD 

Not  all  Woods  Have  the  Same  Properties. — In  general,  wood  is 
strong  relative  to  its  weight,  readily  shaped  with  tools,  light  and 
easy  to  handle,  readily  secured,  and  economically  transported  as 
compared  to  other  materials,  but  in  particular  some  woods  possess 
properties  such  as  durability,  strength  and  stiffness  to  a  greater 
degree  than  others,  which  fit  them  for  specific  uses.  For  example, 
Douglas  fir  is  unexcelled  where  strength  is  the  main  factor,  and  red- 
wood where  durability  is  required.  If  Douglas  fir  were  used  for 
irrigation  boxes,  however,  and  redwood  for  heavy  bridge  timbers,  it 
is  probable  that  both  woods  would  prove  unsatisfactory  because  of 
the  failure  to  put  them  to  the  use  for  which  they  were  best  suited. 

The  diversified  climatic  conditions  of  California  call  for  consider- 
able discretion  in  the  choice  of  species.  Lumber  exposed  to  the  sun 
in  hot,  dry  sections  tends  to  warp  and  cheek.  A  soft  wood  such  as 
redwood,  western  yellow  pine  or  sugar  pine  is  more  suitable  in  such 
cases  than  a  harder  wood  like  Douglas  fir,  which  tends  to  check  when 
exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  Hemlock  and  white  fir  are 
satisfactory  in  a  hot  section  if  thoroughly  dried,  but  if  green,  are  most 
unsatisfactory.  In  all  climates  durable  woods  should  be  used  when- 
ever the  lumber  comes  in  contact  with  the  ground,  or  is  used  in  a 
damp  or  wet  location. 


THE   USE  OF  LUMBER  ON   CALIFORNIA   FARMS 


9.'5 


As  a  guide  in  the  selection  of  the  right  wood  for  a  particular  use, 
there  is  given  later  (p.  108)  an  account  of  the  properties  of  the  woods 
most  available  to  the  California  farmer. 

Some  Cases  where  Wood  is  Preferable. — Wood  is  often  wrongly 
displaced  on  the  farm  for  uses  for  which  it  is  better  adapted  than 
any  other  material.  Horse  corrals  are  often  fenced  with  barbed  wire, 
and  as  a  result,  stock  are  frequently  injured  by  running  against  it  when 
frightened.  Floors  in  horse  stalls  should  always  have  a  wood  cover- 
ing, even  if  there  is  a  concrete  base,  for  the  sake  of  warmth  and 
prevention  of  injury  to  the  feet  of  stock  through  stamping.     Wooden 


Fig.  1.— Attractive  buildings  are  an  asset  to  any  farm.  The  California  farmer 
lias  his  choice  of  a  variety  of  woods  which  embrace  all  the  structural  requirements 
for  attractive  and  serviceable  farm  building. 


pipe  is  often  better  than  any  other  material  for  ditch  structures, 
especially  where  there  is  a  likelihood  that  there  will  be  an  expansion 
of  the  ditch  system  in  the  future.  In  that  case  the  wooden  structure 
could  be  much  more  easily  and  cheaply  altered  than  if  built  of 
concrete. 

Recent  experiments  by  the  Iowa  Agricultural  Experiment  Station2 
with  hog  houses  made  of  wood  and  metal  showed  that  the  range  of 
temperature  was  nearly  75  per  cent  greater  in  the  metal  house  which 
was  much  hotter  at  noon  and  cooler  at  night     The  increased  range 


2  Bulletin  152,  Iowa  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 


94 


UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT    STATION 


of  temperature  in  the  metal  houses  makes  it  evident  that  they  are 
less  desirable  than  wooden  structures  as  far  as  the  conditioning  of 
the  stock  is  concerned. 

Knowledge  of  Lumber  Grades  Important. — The  best  and  safest 
use  of  wood  comes  from  a  knowledge  of  not  only  the  kinds  but  the 
grades  of  lumber  in  relation  to  the  use  which  is  to  be  made  of  it.  Tlie 
farmer  who  bought  lumber  at  $30  per  thousand  to  cover  his  hay  stack, 
could  probably  have  secured  the  same  protection  had  he  purchased 
a  cheaper  grade  of  boards  at  $25  per  thousand.  On  the  other  hand, 
he  would  have  made  a  mistake  had  he  used  the  cheap  grade  of  boards 


Fig.  2. — An  implement  shed,  even  under  California  conditions,  well  warrants  the 
expenditure  for  lumber  by  lengthening  the  life  of  farm  implements. 


for  his  corral  fence  which  requires  material  free  from  serious  defects 
to  withstand  the  sudden  shocks  to  which  it  is  frequently  subjected. 
In  these  instances,  an  idea  of  lumber  grades  would  have  prompted  a 
better  selection  of  material  for  the  use. 

Basis  of  Lumber  Grades. — Lumber  is  separated  into  various  grades 
to  make  it  suitable  for  different  classes  of  consumers,  and  to  enable 
manufacturers  to  maintain  a  uniformity  of  production.  Grades  are 
determined  by  the  number,  size  and  location  of  defects  as  is  shown 
in  the  table  of  grades  given  for  Douglas  fir  and  redwood  on  page 
98.  Lumber  with  practically  no  defects  is  of  the  highest  grade  and 
is  the  most  valuable,  while  lumber  which  has  many  defects  is  of  poor 
quality  and  brings  a  relatively  lower  price. 


THE  USE  OF  LUMBER  ON   CALIFORNIA  FARMS 


95 


The  following  defects  are  those  chiefly  recognized  in  the  grading 
of  lumber:  (1)  Knots.  These  are  classified  according  to  their  form, 
size,  soundness  and  the  firmness  with  which  they  are  held  in  place. 

(2)  Pitch  pockets.  The  number  and  size  of  the  pitch  pockets,  which 
are  openings  between  adjacent  layers  of  growth  containing  more  or 
less  pitch,  is  an  important  consideration  in  fixing  the  grade  of  Douglas 
fir  and  western  yellow  pine  lumber,  which  contains  more  or  less  pitch. 

(3)  Shake.  A  separation  of  the  growth  layers  of  the  tree  presumably 
due  to  the  swaying  action  of  the  wind,  causes  shake,  which  seriously 
reduces    the    quality    of    the    wood    when    converted    into    structural 


tii.^* 


.  -.;jb+**™riim\fflfatt&&,  ■•' 


r  -•    v 


Fig.  3. — Lumber  enters  largely  into  the  equipment  of  California  poultry  plants. 


materials.  (4)  Stain.  Blue  stain,  which  is  commonly  found  in  pine 
lumber,  is  caused  by  certain  low  forms  of  plant  life  called  fungi,  the 
activity  of  which  produces  discoloration  in  the  sapwood.  It  does  not 
injure  the  strength  of  the  wood,  but  is  considered  a  defect  because 
it  detracts  from  the  bright,  clean  appearance  of  the  board.  (5)  Rot. 
Certain  fungi  attack  the  wood  substance  and  break  down  the  structure 
until  the  wood  becomes  rotten.  In  Douglas  fir,  rot  is  indicated  by  a 
decided  softness  of  the  wood  where  it  is  discolored,  or  by  small  white 
spots  resembling  pin  worm  holes. 

Relation  of  Grade  to  Use. — Lumber  is  used  either  in  its  entiretjr 
or  is  resawed  into  new  sizes.     The  greater  part  falls  into  the  first 


96 


UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT    STATION 


class,  as  dimension,  which  is  used  for  studding,  joists,  sills,  and 
rafters;  and  boards,  which  are  used  for  siding,  sheathing,  partitions 
and  other  construction  purposes.  Both  of  these  classes  of  material 
use  lumber  in  the  form  and  size  in  which  it  was  first  manufactured. 
Lumber  included  in  the  second  class  embraces  the  cutting  grades 
which  find  their  largest  use  in  factories  where  they  are  sawed  into 
sash  and  door  stock,  interior  finish  and  box  shook. 


EEASONABLE  COST  OF  LUMBEE 

How  Lumber  is  Generally  Sold. — Lumber  is  generally  quoted  by 
dealers  in  terms  per  thousand  feet  board  measure,  the  common 
abbreviation  for  1000  feet  board  measure  being  "M"  ft.  B.  M.  The 
unit  by  which  lumber  is  reckoned  is  the  board  foot,  which  is  a  square 
foot  one  inch  thick.  Lumber  less  than  one  inch  thick  is  figured  as  if 
one  inch. 

To  obtain  the  number  of  board  feet  in  a  piece  of  lumber,  multiply 
together  the  thickness  and  width  in  inches,  divide  the  product  by  12 
and  multiply  the  result  by  the  length  in  feet. 

Examples: 


>oes 

Size 

Length 

Contents  in 
board  feet 

I 

2X8 

30 

40 

1 

4  X  10 

18 

(50 

1 

10  X  10 

36 

300 

Average  Mill  Prices. — Statistics  show  that  lumber  prices  based  on 
the  figure  obtained  by  the  manufacturer  over  the  entire  country  were 
10  per  cent  less  in  1915  than  in  1906,  an  actual  loss  in  the  period  which 
has  marked  an  average  increase  of  '33  per  cent  in  the  price  of  other 
commodities.  In  1906,  fifty  bushels  of  wheat  would  purchase  1,200 
feet  of  No.  1  sheathing,  while  in  1916  the  same  amount  of  wheat 
would  purchase  2,800  feet  of  the  same  material.  A  comparison  of 
the  prices  of  different  kinds  of  building  materials  from  1912  to  1916 
shows  an  advance  of  32.6  per  cent  for  Portland  cement,  17.3  per  cent 
for  brick  and  63.5  per  cent  for  steel,  while  the  price  of  lumber 
advanced  only  0.6  per  cent  during  this  period  for  all  classes  of  con- 
sumers. 

Retail  Prices. — The  average  price  obtained  by  country  dealers  is 
from  $2.50  to  $4  more  per  thousand  feet  than  that  received  by  city 
dealers.  This  is  partially  due  to  the  higher  cost  of  merchandising 
and  distribution  of  small  amounts  of  lumber.     The  higher  average 


THE   USE   OF   LUMBER  ON   CALIFORNIA   FARMS 


97 


price  in  country  yards  is  also  influenced  by  the  better  quality  of  stock 
demanded  by  the  farmer,  and  the  higher  gross  profits  made  by  the 
country  dealer  due  to  lack  of  competition. 

Figures  obtained  in  a  recent,  study  made  by  the  U.  S.  Forest 
Service3  showed  that  farmers  in  the  middle  West  paid  an  average 
price  of  $31-$32  per  thousand  feet  for  lumber  in  the  period  from 
1912  to  1915.  This  figure  is  probably  somewhat  high  for  California, 
especially  in  the  interior  valleys,  because  of  the  ready  accessibility  of 
a  variety  of  woods,  and  the  number  of  competing  yards. 


Fig.   4. — Lumber  is  the  prevailing  material  used  in  the   construction    of   swine- 
farrowing  pens. 


In  considering  retail  prices,  the  effect  of  quality  should  be  kept 
in  mind.  For  finish,  flooring,  tank  stock  and  other  uses  where  the 
upper  grades  are  necessary,  the  cost  is  high  in  comparison  with  the 
lower  grades  because  of  the  choice  qualities  of  the  lumber  which  fit 
it  for  special  purposes. 

The  relation  of  grade  and  price  is  shown  in  the  following  tabu- 
lations which  give  the  basis  for  some  of  the  principal  grades  made 
for  Douglas  fir  and  redwood,  and  the  influence  which  quality  exerts 
on  price.  The  range  given  is  that  which  existed  in  yards  in  the 
Sacramento  Valley  in  January,  1917. 


3  Report  No.   114,   U.    S.   Dept.   of   Agriculture,   Some   Public  and    Economic 
Aspects  of  the  Lumber  Industry. 


98 


UNIVERSITY    OP    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 


Grades 
Douglas  Fir — 
No.    1    vertical    grain 
flooring,  3,  4  and  6 
inch 

No.    2    vertical    grain 

flooring,  3,  4  and  6 

inch 
No.  2  and  better  flat 

grain  flooring,   3,  4 

and  6  inch 
No.    3    clear    flooring, 

siding  and  rustic 

Timbers,     4X4     and 
larger 

No.  1  dimension, 
2  X  4,  2  X  6,  etc. 


No.  1  common  boards 
and  shiplap,  4  to  12 

No.    2    dimension   and 
common 


Bedwood- 
Clear 


Sap  clear 
Standard 

Extra  merchantable 

Merchantable 
Construction 

No.  3  common 


Basis  of  grades 

Each  piece  must  have  perfect 
edges  and  be  free  from  de- 
fects. Angle  of  grain  must 
not   be  less   than   45   degrees 

Admits  of  a  few,  small  close 
pitch  pockets,  or  equivalent 
defects 

Flat  grain.  Admits  of  slight 
defects  such  as  small  knots 
and  pitch  pockets 

Admits  of  considerable  defect 
such  as  cheeks,  knots  and 
pitch  pockets 

Must  be  well  manufactured  and 
free  from  cheeks  and  knots 
which   will   weaken   the   piece 

Must  be  suitable  and  of  suf- 
ficient strength  for  all  ordi- 
nary construction  purposes 
without  waste. 

Must  be  firm  and  sound  and 
suitable  for  use  in  ordinary 
construction 

Admits  of  unsound  knots,  rot- 
ten streaks  and  other  defects. 
Suitable  for  cheap  and  tem- 
porary construction. 

Practically  free  from  defects. 
Sap  must  not  exceed  4%  of 
area  of  all  surfaces 

Can  contain  sap  in  excess  of  4% 
of  the  area  of  the  surfaces 

Allows  3-4  sound  knots  1% 
inch  in  diameter  or  1-2  sound 
knots  between  l1/4-2  inches 
in  diameter 

Sound  lumber  free  from  defects 
which  will  impair  its  useful- 
ness. Allows  10%  sap  on  all 
surfaces 

60%  extra  merchantable  and  not 
to  exceed  40%  construction 

Allows  knots,  sap,  shake,  and 
other  defects  that  do  not  im- 
pair the  strength  of  the  piece 

Admits  defects  that  render  it 
unfit  for  substantial  construc- 
tion work 


Approximate  difference 

in    prices   per    M 

between  grades 


$5   cheaper    than    pre- 
ceding grade 

$5    cheaper   than   pre- 
ceding grade 

$2.50     cheaper     than 
preceding   grade 

$5    cheaper   than   pre- 
ceding grade 

$2   cheaper   than   pre- 
ceding grade 


Price  about  the  same 
as  above 

$3    cheaper   than    pre- 
ceding grade 


$2  cheaper  than  pre- 
ceding grade 

$3  cheaper  than  pre 
ceding  grade 


$3   cheaper    than   pre- 
ceding grade 


$3  cheaper  than  pre- 
ceding grade 

$3  cheaper  than  pre- 
ceding grade 

$3  cheaper  than  pre- 
ceding 


THE  USE  OF  LUMBER  ON  CALIFORNIA  FARMS 


99 


Hints  on  Buying  Lumber. — It  is  often  more  satisfactory  for  the 
purchaser  of  lumber  to  know  the  price  per  piece  or  per  foot  than  the 
price  per  thousand  feet.  To  the  average  man  there  is  a  cloud  of 
mystery  surrounding  the  purchase  of  a  bill  of  lumber  which  can  be 
dispelled  if  he  buys  it  as  he  would  any  other  commodity.  If  he  knows 
that  a  1  X  12  16-foot  stick  costs  52  cents,  200  feet  of  flooring  can  be 
secured  at  3.2  cents  per  foot,  he  has  definite  prices  for  definite 
articles  which  might  not  be  so  well  comprehended  if  the  price  were 
given  as  $32.50  per  thousand  feet  board  measure.  The  prices  do  not 
sound  as  big  to  the  purchaser  who  feels  more  at  home  in  figuring  the 


Fig.  5. — A  new  type  of  California  bunk-house,  24'  X  54',  with  6-foot  porch 

attached. 


cost  of  a  barn  or  shed.  Also  he  can  check  his  purchase  without  a  lot 
of  figuring,  which  is  a  degree  of  satisfaction.  For  these  reasons,  lum- 
ber dealers  are  getting  more  and  more  into  the  habit  of  selling  small 
lots  by  the  piece  or  board  foot. 

In  purchasing  lumber  it  is  always  a  good  plan  to  tell  the  dealer 
what  it  is  to  be  used  for.  His  experience  should  be  of  assistance  in 
the  proper  selection  of  the  species,  size  and  grade  of  lumber  best 
adapted  for  the  desired  needs.  He  will  be  glad  to  draw  up  plans  and 
make  out  a  bill  of  lumber  for  the  barn  or  shed  which  is  contemplated. 
Lumber  dealers  want  their  customers  to  come  again.  It  is  not  to  their 
interest  to  allow  customers  to  buy  timber  which  quickly  decays  for 


100  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT    STATION 

use  in  moist  places,  or  to  advise  too  high  grade  or  too  expensive  wood 
for  protected  interior  situations. 

There  is  often  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  farmer  to  use  a  better 
grade,  or  at  le?st  a  better  quality,  of  lumber  than  he  actually  needs. 
For  example,  it  is  because  of  the  large  demand  for  1  X  12  boards  that 
the  cost  of  this  size  is  about  $4.00  per  thousand  higher  than  narrow 
stock  such  as  1  X  8,  which  would  probably  serve  the  purpose  just  as 
well. 

This  rule  also  applies  to  the  length  of  the  piece  since  the  value  of 
a  board  increases  with  its  length  as  wdl  as  its  width.  It  is  a  distinct 
loss  to  buy  a  board  16  feet  long  and  12  inches  wide  to  saw  into  pieces 
8  feet  long  and  6  inches  wide.  Short,  narrow  lumber  is  available  in 
all  retail  yards,  and  in  buying  it  the  farmer  will  not  only  save  money 
but  also  secure  a  better  grade  of  lumber  for  the  purposes  he  has  in 
mind. 

In  many  lumber  yards  there  is  a  "bone  pile"  which  is  the  resposi- 
tory  of  broken,  warped,  checked,  rotten,  stained  and  odd  pieces  of 
lumber  of  all  kinds.  Much  of  this  material  is  worthless,  but  consider- 
able good  lumber  can  be  secured  by  the  trouble  of  picking  over  the 
pile.  Many  short  pieces  can  be  secured  from  broken  boards,  and 
warped  pieces  can  be  cut  into  shorter  lengths  so  as  to  utilize  much 
of  the  material.  Weathered  boards  which  have  been  discolored  by 
exposed  to  the  rain  and  sun  are  often  discarded  because  of  their 
appearance.  These  boards,  as  well  as  those  affected  with  blue  stain, 
have  not  been  impaired  in  strength,  and  can  be  readily  used  about  the 
farm.  Another  class  of  material  which  can  be  used  to  advantage  for 
"tinkering"  purposes  is  the  short  pieces  which  have  been  used  as  car 
stakes  and  straps. 

One  lumber  yard  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  utilizes  much  of  the 
defective  material  which  otherwise  would  go  into  the  "bone  pile" 
by  making  it  up  into  ready-made  articles  such  as  the  farmer  needs 
(see  Fig.  6).  A  portable  feed  rack  is  made  out  of  lumber  for  which 
the  company  could  not  get  more  than  $10-$12  per  thousand,  and  the 
price  obtained  for  it  raises  the  price  received  for  the  lumber  to  a 
considerable  degree.  Other  articles  made  out  of  this  low  grade  lumber 
are  6X8  hog  houses,  sections  of  fencing  to  go  around  the  hog  houses 
and  feed  troughs.  In  the  last  named  article  the  material  for  making 
the  trough  proper  has  to  be  of  good  material,  but  the  rest  of  the  stock 
can  be  of  very  low  grade.  The  example  set  by  this  lumber  company 
should  be  a  pointer  to  every  farmer  in  his  purchase  of  lumber. 


THE  USE  OF  LUMBER  ON   CALIFORNIA  FARMS 


101 


AVAILABILITY  OF  LUMBER 

Softwoods  and  Hardwoods. — The  California  farmer  has  his  choice 
of  a  wide  variety  of  woods,  the  greater  part  being  cut  from  Pacific 
Coast  conifers;  cone-bearing  trees,  with  needle  or  scale-like  leaves, 
such  as  pine,  fir  and  redwood.  The  wood  produced  by  conifers  is 
known  to  lumbermen  as  "softwood"  to  distinguish  it  from  that  pro- 


Fig.  6. — Low-grade  material  is  sometimes  utilized  by  retailers  to  make  feed-racks, 
farrowing  pens  and  other  articles  needed  on  the  farm. 


duced  by  broad-leaved  trees  such  as  oak,  hickory  and  ash,  which  is 
called  "hardwood."  These  terms  are  somewhat  inexact  since  some 
so-called  softwoods  like  Douglas  fir  and  western  yellow  pine  are  harder 
than  some  so-called  hardwoods  such  as  basswood  and  willow.  In  com- 
parison with  the  wealth  of  softwood  timber  in  the  Pacific  coast  forests, 
the  supply  of  hardwoods  is  very  meagre  and  inferior  in  quality.  A  few 
kinds  have  some  use  on  the  farm,  but  as  a  general  rule  the  hardwood 
material  used  grows  in  the  eastern  states. 


102  UNIVERSITY    OP    CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT    STATION 


THE  STRUCTUEE  OF  WOOD 

Sapwood  and  Heartwood. — Wood  is  made  up  of  very  small  cells 
of  various  sizes  and  form,  more  or  less  closely  packed  together.  These 
cells  are  divided  into  two  distinct  regions  in  every  tree,  called  the 
sapwood  and  heartwood.  The  sapwood  is  the  layer  of  wood  on  the 
outer  circumference  of  the  tree  just  under  the  bark  and  is  generally 
light  in  color.  The  heartwood,  which  occurs  around  the  pith  at  the 
center  of  the  tree,  is  conspicuous  from  the  sapwood  in  some  woods 
as  red  cedar  and  redwood,  because  of  its  darker  color.  Heartwood  is 
much  more  durable  than  sapwood  in  its  natural  state,  but  sapwood 
can  be  treated  with  preservative  much  more  readily. 

Annual  Rings. — Trees  in  temperate  climates  normally  add  each 
year  a  layer  of  wood  which  is  known  as  an  annual  ring.  These  rings 
are  more  marked  in  trees  growing  where  there  are  well  defined  seasons. 
In  eucalyptus,  which  has  no  well  defined  growing  season,  they  are 
rather  indefinite. 

Three  kinds  of  sections  can  be  cut  in  respect  to  the  annual  rings. 

1.  A  cross  or  transverse  section  is  taken  at  right  angles  to  the 
height  of  the  tree.  It  shows  the  annual  layers  of  growth  and  the  size 
and  arrangement  of  the  cells  better  than  any  outer  surface.  (See 
Figs.  8,  9,  and  10.) 

2.  A  radial  section  is  secured  when  wood  is  cut  along  a  longi- 
tudinal plane  passing  through  the  center  of  the  tree.  By  "quarter- 
sawing"  is  meant  sawing  along  the  radius.  Lumber  cut  in  this  waj' 
has  what  is  known  as  "vertical"  grain  and  makes  high-grade  flooring 
because  of  its  wearing  qualities. 

3.  A  tangential  section  results  when  wood  is  cut  tangent  to  the 
annual  rings,  producing  what  is  known  as  flat  or  "slash-grained" 
lumber.  The  figure  of  the  wood  is  brought  out  to  the  best  advantage 
by  reason  of  the  appearance  of  the  annual  rings. 

Spring  and  Sutiunincood. — Each  annual  ring  is  made  up  of  an 
inner,  softer,  light  colored  part  formed  early  in  the  season  which  is 
known  as  the  springwood  and  an  outer,  firmer,  dark-colored  portion 
which  is  formed  later  and  which  is  known  as  the  summerwood. 
Springwood  cells  are  usually  larger  in  diameter  than  those  formed 
later  in  the  year. 

Medxdlary  Rays. — Besides  the  wood  cells  whose  length  is  para11'1 
to  the  stem,  there  are  other  cells  which  run  at  right  angles  to  it.  In 
cross-section,  these  cells,  which  make  up  what  are  V->own  as  the  medul- 
lary rays,  appear  as  whitish  lines  extending  xr-om  the  pith  to  the 


THE  USE  OP  LUMBER  ON   CALIFORNIA  FARMS  103 

circumference  like  the  spokes  in  a  wheel.  Medullary  rays  are  found 
in  all  kinds  of  trees,  but  are  most  conspicuous  in  such  hardwoods  as 
oak  and  beech  where  they  produce  the  so-called  "silver  grain."  (See 
Fig.  9.) 

PROPERTIES    AND     FARM     USES    OF    WESTERN     SOFTWOODS 

DOUGLAS  FIR   ("OREGON  PINE") 

Relation  of  Strength  to  Use. — Douglas  fir  embodies  the  requisites 
for  a  good  building  wood,  inasmuch  as  it  has  strength,  stiffness, 
medium  weight  and  is  easy  to  handle  and  work.     Because  of  these 


Fig.  7. — Specimens  of  Southern  yellow  pine  showing  relation  of  density  to 
strength.  The  section  on  the  left  is  from  a  timber  having  52  per  cent  of  sum- 
merwood  and  a  breaking  strength  of  11,705  lbs.  per  square  inch.  The  timber 
from  which  the  other  section  was  taken  had  18  per  cent  of  summerwood  and  a 
breaking  strength  of  7393  lbs.  per  square  inch.  (Tests  made  by  U.  S.  Forest 
Products  Laboratory,  Madison,  Wis.) 

qualities,  and  especially  its  strength,  which  is  not  exceeded  by  any 
wood  of  its  weight  in  this  country,  it  is  the  chief  wood  used  on  the 
Pacific  coast  for  structural  purposes.  Douglas  fir  is  manufactured 
into  all  forms  of  dimension  stock  and  meets  the  requirements  for 
supporting  columns,  girders,  beams  and  floors  of  large  buildings  of 
warehouse  character,  and  for  joists,  studding,  rafters,  supports  and 
framing  lumber  of  all  kinds  for  houses,  barns  and  other  smaller 
building  construction. 

The  strength  of  a  timber  increases  in  a  uniform  manner  with  its 
weight.  Summerwood  is  much  heavier  than  springwood,  hence  it 
follows  that  the  more  summerwood  a  timber  possesses,  the  stronger  it 


104  UNIVEKSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT    STATION 

will  be.  For  example,  a  strength  test,  made  by  the  United  States 
Forest  Products  Laboratory,  Madison,  Wis.,  on  a  certain  southern 
yellow  pine  timber  with  52  per  cent  of  summerwood,  showed  it  to  be 
1.6  times  as  strong  as  a  piece  having  only  18  per  cent.  (See  Fig.  7.) 
After  many  tests  on  timbers  of  varying  amounts  of  summerwood,  it 
was  finally  concluded  that  a  high-class  structural  timber  could  be 
guaranteed  if  there  were  33  '^  per  cent  of  summerwood  present,  and 
the  timber  were  free  from  injurious  defects. 

It  was  determined  that  the  third,  fourth  and  fifth  inches  on  a 
radial  line  from  the  pith  (center  of  the  tree)  came  very  close  to  having 
the  same  percentage  of  summerwood  as  the  average  of  the  whole  cross- 
section  of  the  timber.  Hence  it  was  concluded  that  a  timber  must 
show  at  least  one-third  summerwood  in  the  third,  fourth  and  fifth 
inches  measured  out  from  the  pith  to  satisfy  the  strength  require- 
ments for  exacting  purposes.  This  rule  can  well  be  applied  in  the 
selection  of  Douglas  fir  timbers  where  much  strength  is  needed,  since 
some  pieces  have  a  low  percentage  of  summerwood  and  are  therefore 
low  in  strength. 

Besides  having  one-third  summerwood,  a  timber  with  a  high 
strength  value  should  be  solid  and  free  from  serious  defects  such  as 
injurious  diagonal  grain,  loose  or  rotten  knots,  wide  checks,  decay  or 
shake  between  the  annual  rings.  The  position  of  the  knots  has  a 
great  influence  on  the  strength  of  timber.  The  most  dangerous  knots 
are  those  located  in  the  bottom  quarter  of  the  middle  half  of  the  beam 
(volume  1).  The  next  in  order  of  danger,  are  those  in  the  upper  side 
near  the  middle  of  the  span  (volume  2),  and  the  least  dangerous  are 
those  along  the  center  of  the  line  of  height  (volume  3).  Fairly  large 
knots  in  volume  3  will  not  seriously  affect  the  strength  of  a  beam,  but 
knots  located  in  volume  1  may  reduce  its  strength  value  25  per  cent 
below  that  of  similar  beams  with  knots  located  in  other  portions. 

There  is  no  grade  made  at  present  for  Douglas  fir  which  sets  aside 
timbers  possessing  high-grade  structural  qualifications,  and  they  must 
be  selected  from  the  ordinary  grade  of  common  fir  timbers.  This 
grade  will  usually  provide  good  material  for  general  constructional 
purposes,  but  since  it  includes  pieces  which  vary  considerably  in 
density  and  in  position  of  defects,  the  stock  must  be  picked  over  if 
timbers  of  high  strength  value  are  required. 

Use  of  Proper  Grade. — The  grades  for  Douglas  fir  embrace  mater- 
ial just  as  well  fitted  for  ordinary,  every-day  uses  as  for  special, 
exacting  ones.  The  consumer  who  demands  timber  that  is  practically 
free  from  defect  for  every  kind  of  use  is  not  practising  good  economy. 
High  quality  material  of  all  kinds  commands  high  prices,  and  if  the 


THE  USE  OF  LUMBER  ON   CALIFORNIA  FARMS  10f> 

consumer  insists  on  having  the  best  grades  of  lumber  lie  must  pay 
what,  it  is  worth,  just  as  he  would  pay  an  extra  price  for  a  choice  cut 
of  meat.  For  example,  vertical-grain  Douglas  fir  flooring  costs  more 
than  flat-grain  flooring  because  of  the  increased  cost  of  manufacture. 
It  is  superior  for  flooring  subject  to  hard  wear  since  it  does  not  splinter 
as  much  and  wears  longer  than  flat-grained  material,  but  if  the  floor 
is  to  be  carpeted,  there  would  be  little  advantage  in  using  it. 

There  are  some  uses  on  the  farm  where  only  first-class  material  will 
do,  as  for  the  construction  of  wood  pipes  and  tanks  which  require  that 
the  staves  shall  be  practically  free  from  defects,  but  in  many  cases 
upper-grade  lumber  is  used  when  a  lower  grade  will  amply  serve  the 
purpose.  For  instance,  there  is  no  need  of  putting  as  good  a  grade 
of  material  in  an  implement  shed  as  in  a  grain  storage  building,  since 
the  building  is  not  subjected  to  a  heavy  load  as  is  the  case  with  the 
granary.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to  have  the  framing  sufficiently 
strong  to  safely  hold  the  wall  and  roof  covering  and  to  prevent  col- 
lapse of  the  building  from  wind  and  snow.  For  this  purpose  studding 
of  No.  2  dimension  would  probably  prove  as  satisfactory  as  No.  1 
dimension,  and  considerably  reduce  the  cost  of  the  building.  Another 
example  of  the  use  of  a  better  grade  of  material  than  is  necessary  is 
found  in  the  use  of  high-class  sheathing  in  roof  construction.  Since 
all  that  is  required  is  to  have  the  lumber  strong  enough  to  hold  shingle 
nails  well,  a  low  grade  of  sheathing  would  serve  just  as  well  for  this 
purpose  at  a  saving  of  $3  to  $4  per  thousand  feet. 

Use  of  Creosoted  Material. — Objections  are  often  raised  to  the  use 
of  wood,  Douglas  fir  in  particular,  for  sills  and  foiuidations,  because 
of  its  liability  to  damage  by  fungi  or  white  ants  which  may  render  a 
timber  useless  in  a  few  years.  The  difficulty  has  been  that  the  wood 
has  not  been  properly  safeguarded  against  these  destructive  agencies. 
All  but  the  most  durable  woods  will  deteriorate  rapidly  when  placed 
in  contact  with  the  ground  or  with  stone  or  concrete  foundations. 
Also,  decay  is  bad  at  joints  and  points  of  contact  in  any  timber 
structure  on  account  of  the  water  which  collects  in  such  places.  In 
such  cases  the  life  of  the  timber  can  be  materially  lengthened  if  the 
ends  are  given  two  coats  of  hot  coal  tar  creosote.  Girders  or  joists 
which  rest  in  masonry  walls  should  not  be  sealed  in,  but  should  have 
an  air  space  of  at  least  two  inches  around  the  end  to  allow  ventilation. 

The  brush  treatment  is  hardly  sufficient  for  bridge  timbers  since 
the  face  of  the  planks  would  soon  be  worn  away  through  travel  and 
the  action  of  winter  freshets  with  their  loads  of  driftwood.  For  this 
purpose  timber  thoroughly  treated  with  preservative  will  give  best 
satisfaction.    It  was  formerly  considered  that  creosoting  decreased  the 


106  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT    STATION 

strength  of  Douglas  fir  timbers,  but  a  process  is  now  used  which  is 
less  severe  on  the  fibers  of  the  wood  than  the  original  form  of  treat- 
ment. It  is  now  possible  to  secure  a  thorough  penetration  of  the  wood 
without  causing  a  material  loss  of  strength. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  use  of  creosoted  material  will  greatly 
increase  on  the  farm  as  its  merits  become  known.  Silo  staves  of  non- 
durable woods  are  now  being-  treated.  Besides  making  them  more 
resistant  to  decay,  it  renders  them  less  subject  to  shrinking  and  swell- 
ing. Creosoted  wood  block  is  highly  successful  as  a  paving  material, 
and  there  is  no  reason  why  its  excellent  qualities  should  not  make  it 
equally  good  for  dairy-barn  floors. 

KEDWOOD 

DnraoUiti)  of  Redwood. — If  it  had  no  other  merits,  redwood  would 
deserve  a  wide  use  on  the  farm  because  of  its  great  natural  resistance 
to  rot  and  fire.  Heart  redwood  when  placed  in  contact  with  the 
ground  should  have  an  average  life  of  25  years,  whereas  some  other 
native  woods  which  could  be  bought  a  little  cheaper,  perhaps,  rot  out 
in  a  few  years.  When  timbers  are  to  be  subjected  to  conditions  favor- 
able for  decay,  only  a  small  amount  of  sapwood  should  be  used  because 
of  its  tendency  to  decay  quickly.  The  heartwood  is  much  more  dur- 
able, owing  to  the  presence  of  tannins,  oils  and  resins  which  make  it 
obnoxious  to  decay-producing  fungi.  The  durable  qualities  of  red- 
wood should  be  taken  advantage  of  by  the  farmer  in  his  choice  of 
wood  for  such  uses  as  mud  sills,  flumes,  stock  tanks,  headgates  and 
well  casings,  where  all  the  conditions  promoting  decay  are  present. 

Fire  Resistance  of  Wood. — The  fire  hazard  on  the  farm  is  high 
because  of  the  presence  of  large  amounts  of  inflammable  material, 
carelessness  of  employees  and  the  lack  of  fire-fighting  facilities.  Red- 
wood is  particularly  well  adapted  for  buildings  subject  to  fire  exposure 
since  it  is  hard  to  ignite  and  slow  to  burn,  and  fires  are  easily  extin- 
guished. The  fire-resistant  quality  of  redwood  was  well  shown  at  the 
time  of  the  great  San  Francisco  fire  in  1906  when  the  burned  district 
was  fringed  with  houses  built  with  redwood  which  resisted  the  flames 
until  they  could  be  controlled. 

Relation  of  Qualities  to  Use. — Redwood  is  light,  but  relative  to 
its  weight  it  is  one  of  the  strongest  woods  known.  It  is  not  especially 
elastic  and  consequently  is  not  extensively  used  for  structural 
purposes  where  timbers  are  subject  to  heavy  loads.  The  wood  is 
sufficiently  strong  and  stiff,  however,  for  general  house-construction 
purposes,  and  in  addition,  is  light  and  durable.     These  properties,  as 


THE  USE  OP  LUMBER  ON  CALIFORNIA  FARMS  107 

well  as  its  ability  to  keep  its  shape,  make  redwood  especially  valuable 
to  poultry  men,  since  it  is  essential  that  the  joints  in  incubators  and 
other  poultry  yard  appliances  resist  rot  and  keep  tight  in  all  kinds 
of  weather. 

Redwood  is  an  excellent  wood  for  silos  because  of  its  durability, 
small  amount  of  shrinkage  and  non-conducting'  properties.  A  red- 
wood stave  silo  should  last  at  least  20  years,  and  for  its  cost,  is  very 
economical  as  compared  with  that  built  of  other  materials.  Although 
not  as  good  as  a  stave  silo,  the  resaw  silo  made  of  6-inch  redwood 
boards,  nailed  horizontally  to  upright  2X4  Douglas  fir  studdings 
with  several  layers  of  building  paper  placed  between,  or  the  wood- 
hoop  silo,4  has  served  many  a  California  farmer  very  acceptably. 

Wood  pipe  made  from  redwood  or  Douglas  fir  has  many  advan- 
tages as  compared  to  cast-iron  pipe  for  conveying  water  for  irrigation. 
It  is  not  so  subject  to  injury  from  ch<  niieals  in  the  soil  and  does  not 
readily  expand  or  contract  due  to  extremes  of  temperature.  Also, 
repairs  can  be  made  quickly  and  cheaply.  Wood  stave  pipe  can  be 
made  smaller  than  that  of  other  materials,  since  the  low  internal 
friction  of  the  smooth  inner  surface  permits  the  passage  of  a  greater 
volume  of  water  per  unit  of  sectional  area.  Untreated  Douglas  fir 
is  less  durable  than  redwood  when  placed  in  the  ground  under  con- 
ditions favoring  rot.  If  treated  with  creosote,  however,  Douglas  fir 
will  equal  redwood  in  durability  and  where  high  pressures  are  exerted 
its  superior  tensile  strength  gives  it  the  preference.  The  average  life 
of  a  wood  pipe,  when  continually  filled  with  water,  is  estimated  by 
engineers  to  be  about  25  years.  Cases  have  been  known  where  red- 
wood pipe  placed  in  contact  with  the  soil  has  lasted  fifty  years. 

Redwood  makes  a  good  shingle  wood  because  of  its  durability  and 
the  slowness  with  which  it  burns.  Zinc-coated  or  cut  iron  nails  should 
be  used,  due  to  the  tannin  in  the  wood  which  quickly  corrodes  the 
ordinary  shingle  nail.  If  properly  laid,  a  vertical  grain  No.  1  clear 
redwood  shingle  roof  should  last  from  25  to  40  years.  Redwood 
shakes,  which  are  either  sawed  or  split  shingles,  commonly  36  inches 
long,  6  inches  wide  and  Vi  inch  thick,  without  taper,  are  widely  used 
in  California  for  sidewall  coverings  of  buildings  because  of  the  dis- 
tinctive appearance  which  they  give.  Several  different  sizes  can  be 
had,  the  split  shakes  being  considered  superior  to  those  that  are 
jawed,  LJ„ause  of  the  straightness  of  the  grain. 

Use  of  Proper  Gru,^. — The  up^°v  grades  of  redwood,  comprising 
clear,  sap  clear,  and  standard,  come  m  lengths  of  from  8  to  20  ^et 


•*  The  Construction  of  the  Wood-Hoop  iSilo,  Cir.  173,  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  University  of  California,   1917. 


108  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

and  in  widths  from  3  inches  up,  command  much  better  prices  than  the 
common  grades  which  admit  of  a  much  higher  percentage  of  defect. 
For  ordinary  uses  about  the  farm,  the  common  grades  with  the  same 
range  of  widths  and  lengths  are  the  most  economical.  Short,  narrow 
lumber  can  be  obtained  in  all  grades,  and  is  cheaper  and  better  than 
the  usual  sizes  for  which  custom  has  created  a  heavy  demand.  For 
example,  barn  rustic  made  from  1X8  inch  boards  is  just  as  good  and 
is  from  $3  to  $5  per  thousand  cheaper  than  that  made  from  1  X  12 
inch  boards.  Short  pieces  of  clear  lumber  are  from  $5  to  $7  per  thou- 
sand cheaper  than  12-  and  14-foot  lengths  of  the  same  grade.  The 
construction  grade  is  designed  for  ordinary  construction  purposes, 
and  is  free  from  defects  which  materially  weaken  the  piece.  Well- 
seasoned  redwood  of  the  extra  merchantable  grade  is  the  best  material 
to  use  for  flumes  and  irrigation  boxes.  In  their  construction  much 
short  lumber  can  be  used  and  the  expense  considerably  reduced.  The 
lowest  grade  of  redwood,  No.  3  common,  is  not  well  adapted  for  sub- 
stantial construction  work  on  account  of  its  defects,  but  it  can  be  used 
to  advantage  for  subflooring  or  sheathing.  For  silos  and  tanks  only 
the  best  grades  of  clear  redwood  should  be  used. 

BIGTEEE 

The  wood  of  the  bigtree  is  lighter  and  more  brittle  than  that  of 
the  coast  redwood,  to  which  it  is  inferior  in  practically  all  respects 
except  durability.  Bigtree  is  cut  into  lumber  to  some  extent,  but  its 
chief  value  is  for  posts,  shakes  and  stakes  for  vineyards  in  the  San 
Joaquin  Valley.  From  one  tree  14  feet  in  diameter,  there  were  cut 
12,000  2x2x7  grape  stakes,  6,500  4x5x7  posts,  and  15,000  shakes, 
2  feet  long  and  6  inches  wide,  the  total  value  of  the  product  being 
nearly  one  thousand  dollars.  The  use  of  this  wood  is  local,  and  it  is 
mentioned  only  to  distinguish  it  from  the  coast  redwood,  with  which 
it  is  often  confused. 

WESTERN  YELLOW  PINE   ("CALIFORNIA  WHITE  PINE") 

Relation  of  Properties  to  Use. — "Western  yellow  pine  is  advertised 
under  the  name  of  California  white  pine  to  convey  the  idea  that  it  is 
in  a  class  with  the  eastern  white  pine  and  sugar  pine  for  finishing  and 
factory  material.  Botanically,  western  yellow  pine  is  classed  with  the 
hard  or  "yellow"  pines,  rather  than  with  the  soft  or  "white"  pines, 
but  this  wood  varies  in  its  characteristics,  depending  on  the  character 
of  the  trees  from  which  it  is  cut.  Lumber  cut  from  the  smaller  trees, 
commonly  called  "bull-pines,"  and  out  from  the  centers  of  the 
larger  trees,  is  coarse-grained  and  rather  resinous,  resembling  that 


THE  USE  OP  LUMBER  ON   CALIFORNIA  FARMS  109 

of  the  southern  yellow  pine.  That  cut  from  the  outside  of  the  larger 
trees  is  soft,  uniform-textured  and  resembles  tiie  white  pine  in  its 
characteristics.  Much  of  the  western  yellow  pine  timber  cut  in  Cali- 
fornia is  so  soft  and  white  that  it  is  used  for  the  same  purpose  as  the 
true  white  pine.  In  addition  to  being  a  widely  used  wood  for  doors, 
sash,  finish,  ceiling  and  flooring,  western  yellow  pine  serves  admirably 
for  general  construction  purposes  throughout  its  range.  It  is  exten- 
sively used  for  fruit  boxes  and  drying  trays  because  of  its  lightness, 
strength  and  ability  to  keep  its  shape. 

Many  of  the  retail  yards  in  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin 
valleys  are  stocked  chiefly  with  timber  cut  in  the  Sierras,  a  large  part 
of  which  is  western  yellow  pine.  The  common  grades  of  pine  boards 
are  made  up  of  this  species  and  sugar  pine,  and  usually  are  sold  under 
the  name  of  mountain  pine.  This  lumber  is  well  adapted  for  all  uses 
except  those  requiring  special  strength  and  durability.  Mountain 
pine  dimension  material  includes  white  fir  in  addition  to  these  species, 
and  sells  at  retail  for  a  little  less  than  Douglas  fir,  to  which  it  is  con- 
siderably inferior  in  strength  and  elasticity. 

Use  of  Treated  Posts  and  Poles. — Farmers  in  the  foothills  of  the 
Sierras  could  utilize  second-growth  western  yellow  pine  to  good  advan- 
tage for  fence  posts  and  telephone  poles  in  case  the  butts  were  treated 
with  a  preservative.  The  wood  is  sufficiently  strong  for  these  purposes, 
but  in  its  natural  state  it  is  lacking  in  durability.  Round  posts,  such 
as  can  be  cut  at  little  expense  from  second-growth  stands  of  western 
yellow  pine,  are  well  adapted  for  preservative  treatment  since  they 
are  largely  sapwoocl,  which  takes  preservative  readily. 

A  fair  estimate  for  the  cost  of  an  untreated  pine  post  in  the  ground 
is  14  cents,  compared  to  a  cost  of  25  cents  for  a  treated  post.  The 
untreated  post  lasts  only  about  five  years  and  the  treated  post  twenty 
years.  When  the  interest  and  cost  of  replacement  is  figured  for 
these  periods,  it  will  be  found  that  the  yearly  cost  of  the  treated  post 
is  about  half  that  of  the  untreated  post.  The  life  of  first-class  red- 
wood or  cedar  posts,  which  sell  for  20  to  25  cents,  does  not  exceed  20 
years,  and  if  the  posts  are  sappy  or  the  soil  sandy,  a  much  shorter 
life  must  be  expected.  As  a  general  rule,  a  farmer  with  a  plentiful 
supply  of  a  non-durable  timber,  like  western  yellow  pine,  and  a  simple 
treating  plant  can  save  money  in  the  long  run  over  the  cost  of 
untreated  posts  of  durable  species.5 


5  A  recent  Farmers '  Bulletin,  No.  744,  entitled  ' '  The  Preservative  Treatment 
of  Farm  Timbers,"  by  Geo.  M.  Hunt,  gives  the  kind  of  equipment  needed  and 
the  method  of  treatment  of  different  classes  of  timber  on  the  farm.  The  bulletin 
may  be  obtained  free  of  charge  from  the  Editor  and  Chief  of  the  Division  of 
Publications,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 


110  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

High-grade  creosote  oils  suitable  for  treating  farm  timbers  can 
be  obtained  through  local  dealers  in  gallon  cans  up  to  25-gallon  barrels 
at  a  cost  of  from  60  cents  to  85  cents  per  gallon,  depending  on  the 
quantity  orderc  d.  A  barrel  of  good  creosote  is  a  good  investment  since 
the  oil  can  be  used  to  advantage  for  the  treatment  of  any  cheap,  non- 
durable wood. 

It  is  always  a  good  plan  to  treat  sills  and  foundation  timbers  in 
contact  with  the  ground  or  with  concrete  foundations.  Lumber  used 
in  greenhouses  is  usually  subject  to  rapid  decay,  which  can  be  greatly 
retarded  by  preservative  treatment.  Except  where  naturally  durable 
woods  are  available,  a  preservative  treatment  will  always  prove 
economical  for  timber  exposed  to  moisture  and  decay. 

SUGAE  PINE 

Sugar  pine  is  considered  the  most  valuable  tree  on  the  Pacific 
Coast,  due  to  the  excellent  qualities  of  the  wood  and  the  amount  of 
high-class  lumber  which  can  be  obtained  from  it  for  finishing  and 
remanufacturing  purposts.  The  qualities  which  especially  commend 
it  to  the  artisan  are  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  worked  and  the 
slight  shrinkage,  swelling,  and  warping  which  takes  place  under  vary- 
ing atmospheric  conditions.  From  40  to  50  per  cent  of  the  cut  consists 
of  the  upper  grades,  No.  2  shop  and  better,  the  greatest  part  of  which 
is  used  for  finishing  purposes,  and  the  manufacture  of  sash,  doors, 
blinds,  pattern  stock  and  other  special  uses.  In  some  parts  of  central 
California,  sugar  pine  is  used  as  a  lining  material  for  silos,  for  which 
use  its  appears  well  adapted  because  of  its  durability  and  ability  to 
keep  its  shape. 

Sugar  pine  is  a  favorite  box  material  on  account  of  its  softness, 
lightness,  light  color,  freedom  from  odor  and  taste,  and  because  it 
can  be  nailed  without  splitting.  A  large  proportion  of  the  lumber 
included  in  the  grades  below  No.  2  shop  is  made  into  fruit  boxes,  the 
balance  of  the  lower  grades  being  found  in  yards  supplied  by  mills 
operating  in  the  Sierras  in  the  form  of  common  boards  and  dimension 
material.  Sugar  pine  is  not  as  durable  in  contact  with  the  ground 
as  redwood  or  cedar,  but  in  the  air  it  shows  great  lasting  properties. 
When  handled  by  retailers,  the  lower  grades  are  often  included  in  the 
combination  of  woods  known  as  mountain  pine.  Although  poor  in 
shock-resisting  ability  sugar  pine  is  strong  enough  to  be  used  for 
purposes  where  only  moderate  strength  is  required. 

The  early  settlers  in  the  Sierras  found  sugar  pine  well  adapted 
for  shakes,  and  the  fruit  men  in  the  valleys  below  soon  found  out 


THE  USE  OP  LUMBER  ON   CALIFORNIA   FARMS  111 

its  suitability  for  raisin  and  fruit  trays.  At  first  all  this  material 
was  split  out  of  straight-grained  trees,  causing  much  waste  of  material, 
but  how  it  is  principally  sawed  out  by  small  shingle  or  tray  mills. 

THE  TEUE  PIES 

There  are  three  distinct  species  of  true  firs  found  in  California 
which  are  more  or  less  used  on  the  farm.  They  are  white  fir  and  red 
fir,  which  grow  in  the  Sierras,  and  lowland  fir,  which  is  found  in  the 
coast  forests. 

In  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  considerable  white  fir  is  included  in 
the  grade  of  mountain  pine.  In  a  dry  climate,  it  serves  for  cheap  and 
temporary  construction  purposes,  but  it  is  not  satisfactory  when 
strength  and  durability  are  sought.  Because  of  its  tendency  to  split 
when  nailed,  it  has  but  a  limited  use  in  the  manufacture  of  fruit  boxes, 
which  are  chiefly  made  of  pine.  Red  fir  is  not  extensively  cut  into 
lumber  on  account  of  the  altitude  at  which  it  grows.  It  is  stronger 
and  much  more  durable  than  white  fir  and  finds  a  ready  use  on  moun- 
tain ranches  in  localities  in  which  it  grows. 

Retailers  who  handle  lumber  cut  in  the  coast  region  generally  carry 
a  common  grade  of  white  fir  which  grows  there,  which  sells  for  about 
$3  less  per  thousand  board  feet  than  a  similar  grade  of  other  species. 
This  wood  is  neither  durable  nor  strong,  and  has  a  tendency  to  warp 
and  check,  but  it  fulfills  a  certain  need  for  cheap,  temporary  construc- 
tion and  for  forms.  A  large  part  of  the  cut  is  made  into  a  wall  board 
which  is  different  from  the  ordinary  wall  board  made  of  wood  pulp, 
in  that  it  has  a  wooden  core  made  firm  by  layers  of  cement  surfaced 
with  heavy  paper.  This  makes  a  dry,  sanitary  and  clean  lining  for 
walls  and  ceilings,  and  is  especially  good  for  remodeling  the  interior 
of  buildings,  since  it  can  be  quickly  and  easily  applied. 

POET  OEPOED  CEDAE   ("WHITE  CEDAE") 

Port  Orford  cedar  is  a  comparatively  new  wood  in  California,  but 
it  is  rapidly  growing  in  favor  for  farm  use  because  of  the  combination 
of  strength  and  durability  which  it  possesses.  The  strength  is  due  to 
the  compact  character  of  the  wood,  and  the  durability  to  the  presence 
of  an  oil  in  the  wood  which  gives  it  a  very  distinctive  odor.  It  is  a 
popular  belief  that  this  odor  will  repel  insects  and  it  is  extensively  used 
in  closets  and  chests.  The  wood  may  act  in  this  capacity  when  freshly 
cut,  but  it  soon  loses  this  quality  as  it  dries  out  and  loses  its  scent. 
Port  Orford  cedar,  however,  has  sufficient  excellent  qualities  to  recom- 
mend it  without  that  of  being  a  repellent  to  insects. 


112  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT    STATION 

Besides  being  strong  and  durable,  Port  Orford  cedar  is  easily 
worked,  keeps  its  shape  and  does  not  splinter  under  long  and  hard 
wear.  These  properties  make  it  an  excellent  wood  for  underpinning, 
bridge  material,  barn  boards,  fencing  and  other  purposes  where  a 
wood  is  required  that  will  resist  decay  and  yet  be  strong  and  wear 
well.  The  grade  of  common,  which  retails  at  from  $25  to  $30  per 
thousand  feet,  depending  on  the  sizes  desired,  furnishes  a  tight- 
knotted  material  that  is  highly  satisfactory  for  ordinary  construction 
work  on  the  farm.  A  cheaper  grade,  No.  3  common,  which  admits  of 
larger  and  coarser  defects,  but  not  sufficient  to  prevent  the  use  of  each 
piece  in  full  length  and  full  widths  for  ordinary  purposes,  can  be 
purchased  for  from  $20  to  $22  per  thousand  in  yards  carrying  this 
wood.  The  upper  grades  of  Port  Orford  cedar  have  a  wide  use  for 
finishing  material  and  command  prices  equal  to  those  of  any  of  the 
western  softwoods. 

WESTEEN  BED  CEDAE 

Western  red  cedar  is  the  most  widely  used  shingle  wood  in  the 
United  States  because  of  its  lightness,  slight  shrinkage  and  expansion, 
durability  and  the  ease  with  which  the  wood  will  take  nails  without 
splitting.  It  makes  a  roof  that  is  not  affected  by  weather  conditions 
and  which  can  be  cheaply  constructed  and  maintained.  More  trouble 
with  shingle  roofs  has  been  experienced  in  the  past  due  to  poor  con- 
struction and  the  use  of  improper  nails  than  to  any  fault  in  the  wood 
itself.  Shingle  manufacturers  have  met  this  difficulty  by  getting  out 
a  complete  set  of  directions  on  the  correct  methods  of  laying  shingles 
so  as  to  insure  a  tight  and  durable  roof. 

For  permanent  construction  only  the  higher  grades  of  shingles, 
such  as  retail  for  about  $3.50  per  thousand,  should  be  used.  The  best 
method  of  selecting  shingles  is  by  a  trademark  bearing  the  guarantee 
of  the  manufacturer.  This  indicates  that  the  shingles  have  been 
inspected  and  hold  true  to  specifications  as  regards  sap,  thickness,  size 
and  grain.  A  grade  of  shingles  well  suited  for  farm  use  requires 
that  all  the  shingles  be  free  from  sap  and  that  80  per  cent  be  free 
from  defects.  Only  dry  shingles  should  be  used  if  they  are  to  be 
stained.  Shingles  that  are  not  to  be  stained  should  be  wet  thoroughly 
before  laying. 

"Western  red  cedar  has  an  extensive  use  as  grape  stakes  for  which 
redwood  was  used  almost  entirely  a  few  years  ago.  The  wood  is 
well  adapted  for  this  use  on  account  of  its  lightness  and  durability, 
and  generally  undersells  redwood  several  dollars  a  thousand  stakes. 


THE  USE  OP  LUMBER  ON  CALIFORNIA  FARMS       •  113 

There  is  relatively  little  red  cedar  lumber  handled  by  retailers  in 
California,  but  where  available,  it  is  used  for  the  same  purposes  as 
redwood. 

INCENSE  CEDAR 

Tneense  cedar  is  found  chiefly  on  the  west  slope  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  Mountains  in  California,  where  it  forms  about  8  per  cent  of 
the  stand.  It  is  cut  into  lumber  only  to  a  limited  extent  because  of 
the  prevalence  of  "dry  rot,"  the  result  of  a  fungus  which  attacks  the 
heartwood,  causing  cavities  which  become  filled  with  a  dry,  brownish 
substance  that  gives  the  name  to  the  defect.  Other  names  given  the 
tree  are  red  cedar,  white  cedar  and  post  cedar. 

Incense  cedar  is  one  of  the  most  durable  woods  in  the  Sierras,  the 
heartwood  being  extensively  used  by  mountain  ranchers  for  posts, 
poles  and  rails.  Also  it  has  a  wide  local  use  for  stubs  for  poles  of  less 
durable  species.  When  so  used,  it  is  set  in  the  ground  alongside  the 
pole  to  which  it  is  wired  or  bolted.  It  is  usually  the  custom  to  split 
out  timber  for  these  uses,  the  value  of  the  finished  product  averaging 
16c  to  18c  for  posts,  $1.25  to  $1.50  for  poles,  aud  30c  for  stubs.  It  is 
estimated  that  the  life  of  heart  cedar  for  these  purposes  is  from  20  to 
25  years. 

Occasionally  it  is  possible  to  obtain  incense  cedar  logs  which  are 
not  affected  with  dry  rot,  and  when  this  is  the  case,  lumber  of  high 
quality  can  be  secured.  The  small  quantity  of  high-grade  lumber 
obtained  is  used  locally  for  outside  trim  and  interior  finish.  The  bulk 
of  the  material  sawed  out  is  for  dimension  stuff  and  rough  construc- 
tion work,  such  as  sills,  culverts  and  bridge  plank,  for  which  it  is 
adapted  because  of  its  durability  and  wearing  qualities.  The  grade 
of  lumber  used  for  these  purposes  is  No.  1  and  2  common,  which  sells 
for  from  $20  to  $27  per  thousand  in  the  local  mountain  markets.  The 
grade  lower  than  No.  2  common  is  generally  so  badly  affected  with  dry 
rot  that  it  is  of  little  value,  and  sells  for  as  low  as  $8  to  $10  per 
thousand.  The  prohibitive  cost  of  transportation  and  the  relatively 
small  quantity  cut  keeps  this  wood  from  competing  with  the  coast 
redwood  in  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  valleys  and  it  finds  little 
use  there  except  in  a  small  way  for  grape  stakes  and  raisin  trays. 

WESTERN  HEMLOCK   ("SILVER  FIR") 

There  is  considerable  unfounded  prejudice  against  this  wood, 
which  is  partially  due  to  the  poor  reputation  of  eastern  hemlock,  which 
is  a  very  splintery,  coarse-grained  wood,  and  much  inferior  to  the 
western  species.     It  also  gained  a  bad  name  because  it  was  formerly 


114  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

the  practice  for  retailers  to  buy  green  lumber,  with  the  result  that 
deterioration  took  place  in  the  yards  in  the  seasoning  process.  The 
poor  appearance  of  the  lumber  contrasted  with  that  of  the  seasoned 
stock  of  otln  r  spech  s  made  a  poor  impr<  ssion  on  the  average  consumer. 
If  well  seasoned,  western  hemlock  makes  a  good  wood  for  purposes 
where  it  is  not  exposed  to  the  weather,  as  for  the  lining  of  granaries, 
since  the  wood  is  light,  non-resinous,  fairly  strong,  tough,  close-grained 
and  holds  nails  well.  It  is  not  a  durable  wood,  however,  and  should 
not  be  placed  in  contact  with  the  ground.  Much  of  the  higher  grade 
material  is  made  into  ceiling  which  has  considerable  use  in  some 
localities,  since  it  is  cheaper  and  serves  the  purpose  as  well  as  some 
other  species  in  the  market.  The  same  grades  are  made  for  hemlock 
as  for  Douglas  fir,  but  it  undersells  that  timber  from  $2  to  $3  per 
thousand  feet,  chiefly  because  of  the  prejudice  against  it  which  still 
exists. 

PROPERTIES   AND    FARM    USES    OF    HARDWOODS 

The  use  of  hardwoods  on  the  farm  is  necessary  for  the  repairing 
of  farm  implements,  such  as  harvesters  and  wagons,  and  for  other 
purposes,  such  as  handles,  spokes  and  poles,  where  special  strength 
and  toughness  are  required.  Eastern  woods  such  as  oak,  ash,  hickory 
and  maple  are  generally  used,  the  native  hardwoods  being  little  used 
except  in  remote  localities.  They  are  rarely  sawed  into  lumber,  the 
practice  being  to  rough  out  the  pieces  required  and  allow  them  to 
season  before  making  them  up  into  the  articles  for  which  they  are 
intended. 

The  California  oaks,  of  which  there  are  a  number  of  species,  such 
as  white  oak,  black  oak,  live  oak  and  tanbark  oak,  find  little  use  except 
as  fuel.  The  old  timber  is  generally  too  brittle  and  weak  for  purposes 
where  strength  is  required,  and  it  is  only  the  young  growth  which  has 
the  necessary  qualities  for  the  needtd  purposes.  Eastern  white  oak 
is  stronger,  harder  and  tougher  than  red  oak  or  Japanese  oak  and 
is  probably  the  most  widely  used  of  all  hardwoods. 

California  laurel  is  a  native  hardwood  the  worth  of  which  people 
have  been  slow  to  recognize.  It  is  heavy,  hard  and  strong,  and  will 
do  the  work  of  most  hardwoods  at  a  considerably  lower  cost.  It  is 
extensively  sold  to  country  trade  by  certain  hardwood  dealers  in 
San  Francisco  for  wagon  bottoms,  the  price  ranging  from  6c  to  9c 
per  foot,  depending  on  the  width  and  thickness  of  the  piece.  The 
average  range  of  prices  for  eastern  oak  is  from  lie  to  15c  and  for 
Japanese  oak,  9c  to  14c  per  foot.     It  has  an  extensive  use  for  house 


THE   USE   OP  LUMBER  ON   CALIFORNIA  FARMS 


Hi 


HBWMSB& 


Fig.  8. — Longleaf  pine,  a  non-porous  wood.  Cross-section  showing  several 
annual  rings.  Pores  are  absent  ami  the  structure  is  very  uniform,  due  to  the 
similar  structure  and  arrangement  of  the  wood  elements.  The  growth  rings  are 
defined  by  the  greater  density  of  the  summerwood.  The  larger  openings  seen 
are  the  resin  ducts.    The  medullary  rays  appear  as  fine  black  lines. 


116  UNIVERSITY   OF    CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT    STATION 

rollers  on  account  of  its  strength  in  compression,  which  is  greater 
than  that  of  oak- 
Several  species  of  the  Australian  genus  Eucalyptus  have  been 
planted  in  California;  extensive  areas  of  blue  gum  having  been 
set  out  with  the  idea  of  producing  lumber  in  a  short  period  of 
time.  It  has  been  well  demonstrated,  however,  that  satisfactory 
lumber  can  be  obtained  only  from  carefully  selected  large  trees,  since 
the  wood  from  the  small  trees  seasons  so  rapidly  that  excessive  check- 
ing and  warping  takes  place.  The  wood  is  very  tough,  hard  and 
strong  and  is  well  adapted  for  small  articles  such  as  tool  handles, 
brackets  and  insulator  pins.  A  manufacturer  of  these  articles  is  of 
the  opinion  that  eucalyptus  should  displace  80  per  cent  of  the  eastern 
hardwoods  used  for  these  purposes. 

In  its  natural  state  eucalyptus  will  not  make  a  satisfactory  post 
because  of  the  rapid  rate  of  decay  of  the  sapwood.  If  treated  with 
creosote  by  the  open-tank  method,  however,  the  posts  should  give  as 
good  service  as  those  of  any  other  wood.  A  wide  and  very  satisfactory 
use  of  eucalyptus  is  for  fuel.  Thoroughly  seasoned  wood  compares 
favorably  with  oak  in  heating  value,  and  where  available,  costs  con- 
siderably less. 


KEY    FOR     IDENTIFICATION    OF    WOODS     COMMONLY     USED     BY    CALIFORNIA 

FARMERS 

The  purpose  of  this  key  is  to  arrange  the  main  facts  pertaining  to 
the  principal  woods  used  by  California  farmers  in  such  a  way  that 
they  may  be  readily  identified.  The  following  terms,  in  addition  to 
those  already  given,  are  used  in  connection  with  this  key : 

Pores  or  Vessels. — If  the  end  of  a  piece  of  oak  is  examined,  small 
holes  called  pores  can  be  seen.  '  These  are  cross-sections  of  small  hollow 
tubular  structures  which  serve  to  conduct  the  sap  up  the  tree.  These 
pores  are  found  only  in  hardwoods,  consequently  softwoods  are 
classified  as  "nonporous  woods."     (See  Fig.  8.) 

Ring  Porous. — When  there  is  a  considerable  difference  in  size 
between  the  pores  in  the  springwood  and  summerwood,  and  the  large 
pores  are  located  in  the  springwood  so  that  they  form  conspicuous 
concentric  circles,  as  seen  in  the  cross-section,  the  wood  is  said  to  be 
"ring  porous."     (See  Fig.  9.) 

Diffuse  Porous. — If  the  pores  are  scattered  throughout  the  annual 
ring  and  there  is  little  difference  between  those  in  the  springwood  and 
those  in  the  summerwood,  the  wood  is  said  to  be  diffuse  porous." 
(See  Fig.  10.) 


THE  USE  OP  LUMBER  ON   CALIFORNIA  FARMS 


117 


*  Fig.  9. — White  oak,  a  ring-porous  wood.  Cross-section  through  two  annual 
rings.  Large  pores  of  spring  wood  are  shown  on  lower  portion  of  each  growth 
ring.  The  small  pores  of  the  summer  wood  are  in  fan-like  groups.  Note 
large  medullary  ray  to  the  left  extending  at  right  angles  to  the  growth  rings. 
Wood  structure  is  complex,  due  to  the  lack  of  uniform  structure  and  arrangement 
of  the  elements. 


Forest  Service  photo,  Forest  Products  Laboratory,  Madison,  Wis. 


118  UNIVERSITY-  OF    CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT    STATION 

Resin  Ducts. — It  may  appear  that  in  some  of  the  conifers  such  as 
Douglas  fir  and  pine,  pores  can  be  seen  in  cross-section.  The  small 
openings  which  appear,  however,  are  cross-sections  of  canals  which 
contain  the  resin  produced  by  these  species  and  are  known  as  "resin 
ducts."  They  are  absent  in  some  softwoods,  like  cedar  and  redwood, 
and  are  never  found  in  hardwoods.       (See  Fig.  8.) 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  USING   KEY 

1.  Cut  a  smooth  cross-section  from  the  end  of  the  piece  of  wood 
under  examination.  The  knife  should  be  very  sharp,  since  details  of 
structure  cannot  be  well  observed  if  the  surface  is  rough. 

2.  A  magnifying  glass  of  some  kind,  such  as  the  ordinary  hand 
lens,  is  of  much  assistance  in  bringing  out  the  structural  details  of 
wood. 

3.  Softwoods  can  be  distinguished  from  hardwoods  by  keeping  in 
mi?.d  the  following  points : 

Softwoods  Hardwoods 

a.  Medullary  rays  not  conspicuous.  a.  Medullary  rays  generally  con- 

b.  Some  are  resinous.  spicuous. 

c.  Non-porous.  b.  None  are  resinous. 

d.  Easy  to  cut,  as  a  rule.  c.  Pores  present. 

c.  Wood  generally  light  when  dry.  (7.  Hard  to  cut,  as  a  rule. 

e.  Wood  usually  heavy  when  dry. 

4.  The  nature  of  the  change  between  spring  and  summerwood, 
whether  abrupt  or  gradual,  is  an  important  distinguishing  character- 
istic in  softwoods. 

5.  Some  woods,  such  as  redwood  and  bigtree,  can  be  readily  recog- 
nized by  their  color. 

6.  The  smell  of  the  wood  is  sufficient  to  distinguish  the  cedars. 
Moistening  the  surface  brings  out  the  odor  more  distinctly. 

7.  The  pores  in  hardwoods  should  not  be  confused  with  the  resin 
ducts  in  some  of  the  conifers.  The  presence  of  resin  can  be  detected 
by  resinous  exudations  on  the  surface.  Resin  ducts  often  appear  as 
brownish  lines  on  longitudinal  surfaces  of  dry  lumber. 


Till:   USE  OF   L.UMBEE  ON    CALIFORNIA  FARMS 


119 


*Fig.  10. — Hard  maple,  a  diffuse-porous  wood.  Cross-section  through  two 
annual  rings.  The  pores  are  small  ami  uniform  in  size  in  both  spring  and  summer 
wood.  The  summer  wood  can  be  recognized  by  its  greater  density.  The  medullary 
rays  are  small,  but  quite  distinct. 


*  Photos  8  and  10,  Forest  Service. 


120  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT    STATION 


Key  for  Woods  Commonly  Used  on  California  Fai  ms 

I.  Pores  absent — Conifers. 

A.  Abrupt  change  between  spring  and  sunimerwood. 

1.  Eesinous. 

a.  Cross-section  has  appearance  of  cut-horn.     Dark  sunimerwood  reddish 

in  color.     Wood  moderately  heavy.  Douglas  Fir. 

b.  Cross-section  not  hornlike  m  appearance.     Heartwood  reddish   brown 

and  darker  than  sapwood.  Wool  moderately  light,  some  pieces 
only  slightly  resinous.  Western  Yellow  Pint . 

2.  Non-resinous. 

a.  Color  a  dead  white.     Wood  crumples  under  the  knife  in  cross-section. 

Freshly  cut  pieces  have  strong,  rancid  odor.  Wood  checks  and 
splits  very  easily.  White  Fir. 

b.  Color  light  brown.     Wood  cuts  evenly  in  cross-section.     Fresh  pieces 

have  sour  odor.     Takes  nails  well.  Western  Hemlock. 

B.  Gradual  change  between  spring  and  sunimerwood. 

1.  Odorous. 

a.  Color  white.     Little  change  iu  color  between  sapwood  and  heartwood. 

Wood  has  strong,  spicy  odor  and  taste.  Port  Orford  Cedar. 

b.  Color  of  heartwood  light  brown,  sapwood  whitish.     Grain  fine  and 

uniform.     Wood  generally  "pecky"  due  to  dry  rot.     Faint  aro- 
matic odor.  Incense  Cedar. 
e.  Color  reddish-brown.     Wood  rather  coarse-grained.     Agreeable  odor, 
peculiar   to   cedar   shingles.                                   Western  Bed   Cedar. 

2.  Odorless. 

a.  Color  creamy  white.     Brown  lines  due  to  resin  ducts  found  on  radial 

and  tangential  surfaces.     Wood  of  fine  texture.  Sugar  Pine. 

b.  Color  of  heartwood  red.     Sapwood  white  and  very  narrow.     Wood  of 

coarse  texture.  Redwood. 

C.  Color  of  heartwood  pinkish.     Wood  very  light  in  weight.         Bigtrec. 

IT.  Pores  present — Hardwoods. 

A.  Ring  porous  (zone  of  large  pores  collected  in  springwood  of  annual  ring). 

1.  Medullary  rays  large. 

Large   pores   in   1-3   rows   in   springwood;    change   to   smaller   pores   of 
summerwood  abrupt.     Wood  heavy  and  hard.  White  Oak. 

2.  Medullary  rays  small. 

a.  Large   pores   in   broad   zone   in    springwood.      Pores   in   summerwood 

small,  scattered  singly  or  in  groups  of  short  broken  lines.  Surface 
of  wood  light  with  a  fine  brown  marking  of  lines  running  parallel 
with  the  grain.  White  Ash. 

b.  Large   pores   in   springwood   irregular,   extending  more    or  less   into 

sunimerwood.  Fine  lines  (not  of  pores)  in  summerwood  extending 
parallel  with  the  annual  rings.  Wood  heavy,  tough,  hard  and 
strong.  Hickory. 


THE  USE  OF  LUMBER  ON  CALIFORNIA  FARM*  121 

B.  Diffuse-porous   (pores  scattered  uniformly  throughout  annual  ring). 
1.  Annual  rings  absent  or  indistinct. 

a.  Kays  very  fine.     Pores  distributed  in  many  lines.     Color  light  brown. 

Wood  very  hard  and  tough.     Interlaced  fibers  make  it  difficult  to 
work.  Blue  (I ii in. 

b.  Rays  fine  but  distinct.     Pores  occur  singly  or  in  small  groups.     Color 

pale  white  with   dark   streaks   at   intervals.      Wood   very    hard    and 
tough.    Odor  aromatic,  taste  peppery.  California  Laurel. 


LIST    OF    CIRCULARS    DEALING    WITH    WESTERN    SOFTWOODS 

Douglas  Fir. 

Portland  Lumber  Co.,  16  California  st.,  San  Francisco. 

' '  Prosperity  on  your  Dairy  Farm. ' ' 
West  Coast  Lumbermen  's  Association,  Seattle,  Wash. 

' '  Creosoted  Wood  Stave  Pipe  for  Irrigation  Purposes. ' ' 

"Creosoted  Douglas  Fir  Paving  Blocks." 

' '  Creosoted  Douglas  Fir  Road  Culverts. ' ' 

' '  Creosoted   Fence   Posts  and   Poles. ' ' 

' '  Facts  about  Paving  Bridge  Floors. ' ' 

"Lumber  Users'  Guide  No.  8"   (general  description  of  Douglas  fir). 

Eedwood. 

California  Redwood  Assoc,  713  New  Call  Bldg.,  San  Francisco. 
' '  California  Redwood  on  the  Farm. ' ' 
"The   Test  by   Fire." 
"Two  Births." 

"California  Redwood  Lives  Forever." 
Pine. 

California  Sugar  and  White  Pine  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
"California  Sugar  and  White  Pine." 
Port  Orford  Cedar  and  Hemlock. 

Information  may  be  obtained  from  Coos  Bay  Lumber  Company,  Oakland,  Cal. 

Western  Bed  Cedar. 

West  Coast  Lumbermen 's  Association,  Seattle,  Wash. 

"Lumber    Users'    Guide    No.    12"    (general    description    of    Western    Red 

Cedar). 
"Farm  Buildings  of  Red   Cedar   Shingles." 
"Bungalow  Houses  of  Red  Cedar  Shingles." 
' '  Boys '  Builder  and  Garage  Book. ' ' 

Preservation. 

"The  Preservative  Treatment  of  Farm  Timbers,"  George  M.  Hunt,  Farmers' 
Bulletin  744,  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  1916. 

"Methods  of  Clearing  Logged-off'  Laud,"  C.  H.  Shattuck,  Bulletin  91,  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station,  University  of  Idaho,  pp.  44-49,  1916. 


STATION  PUBLICATIONS  AVAILABLE  FOR  FREE  DISTRIBUTION 


No. 

230. 
250. 
251. 


252. 
253. 

255. 
257. 
261. 

262. 

263. 
264. 
265. 
266. 

267. 
268. 
270. 


271. 
272. 
273. 

274. 


Enological  Investigations. 

The  Loquat. 

Utilization  of  the  Nitrogen  and  Organic 
Matter  in  Septic  and  Imhoff  Tank 
Sludges. 

Deterioration   of  Lumber. 

Irrigation  and  Soil  Conditions  in  the 
Sierra  Nevada  Foothills,  California. 

The  Citricola  Scale. 

New  Dosage  Tables. 

Melaxuma  of  the  Walnut,  "Juglans 
regia." 

Citrus  Diseases  of  Florida  and  Cuba 
Compared  with   Those   of  California. 

Size  Grades  for  Ripe  Olives. 

The  Calibration  of  the  Leakage  Meter. 

Cottony  Rot  of   Lemons   in   California. 

A  Spotting  of  Citrus  Fruits  Due  to  the 
Action  of  Oil  Liberated  from  the  Rind. 

Experiments  with  Stocks  for  Citrus. 

Growing  and  Grafting  Olive  Seedlings. 

A  Comparison  of  Annual  Cropping,  Bi- 
ennial Cropping,  and  Green  Manures 
on  the  Yield  of  Wheat. 

Feeding  Dairy  Calves  in   California. 

Commercial  Fertilizers. 

Preliminary  Report  on  Kearney  Vine- 
yard Experimental  Drain. 

The  Common  Honey  Bee  as  an  Agent 
in  Prune  Pollination. 


BULLETINS 

No. 

275. 


276. 
277. 


279. 
280. 

281. 

282. 

283. 
284. 
286. 
288. 

290. 

291. 

292. 


293. 
294. 
295. 
296. 
297. 
298. 
299. 


The  Cultivation  of  Belladonna  in  Cali 
fornia. 

The  Pomegranate. 

Sudan  Grass. 

Grain   Sorghums. 

Irrigation  of  Rice  in  California. 

Irrigation  of  Alfalfa  in  the  Sacramento 
Valley. 

Control  of  the  Pocket  Gophers  in  Cali- 
fornia. 

Trials  with  California  Silage  Crops  for 
Dairy  Cows. 

The  Olive  Insects  of  California. 

Irrigation  of  Alfalfa  in  Imperial  Valley. 

Commercial  Fertilizers. 

Potash  from  Tule  and  the  Fertilizer 
Value  of  Certain  Marsh  Plants. 

The  June  Drop  of  Washington  Navel 
Oranges. 

The  Common  Honey  Bee  as  an  Agent 
in  Prune  Pollination.      (2nd  report.) 

Green  Manure  Crops  in  Southern  Cali- 
fornia. 

Sweet  Sorghums  for  Forage. 

Bean  Culture  in  California. 

Fire  Protection  for  Grain  Fields. 

Topping  and  Pinching  Vines. 

The   Almond   in   California. 

The  Seedless  Raisin  Grapes. 

The  Use  of  Lumber  on  California 
Farms. 


No. 
113. 
114. 
115. 
124. 
126. 
127. 
128. 
129. 
131. 
133. 
135. 
136. 
137. 
138. 
139. 


140. 


142. 
143. 

144. 

147. 
148. 
150. 
151. 
152. 

153. 

154. 

155. 
156. 
157. 
158. 
160. 
161. 
162. 


164. 


CIRCULARS 


No. 
165. 


Correspondence  Courses  in  Agriculture. 

Increasing  the  Duty  of  Water. 

Grafting  Vinifera  Vineyards.  166 

Alfalfa   Silage  for   Fattening   Steers.  167, 

Spraying  for  the  Grape  Leaf  Hopper.  168, 

House  Fumigation. 

Insecticide  Formulas.  169. 

The  Control  of  Citrus  Insects.  170. 

Spraying  for  Control  of  Walnut  Aphis. 

County  Farm  Adviser.  172. 

Official  Tests  of  Dairy  Cows.  174. 

Melilotus  Indica.  175. 

Wood  Decay  in  Orchard  Trees. 

The  Silo  in   California  Agriculture.  176. 

The    Generation    of   Hydrocyanic    Acid 

Gas   in   Fumigation  by  Portable  Ma-  177. 

chines.  179. 
The  Practical  Application  of  Improved 

Methods  of  Fermentation   in   Califor-  181. 

nia  Wineries  during  1913  and  1914. 

Practical  and  Inexpensive  Poultry  Ap-  182. 

pliances. 

Control    of    Grasshoppers    in    Imperial  183. 

Valley.  184. 

Oidium  or  Powderv  Mildew  of  the  Vine.  185. 
Tomato  Growing  in  California. 

"Lungworms."  186. 

Round  Worms   in  Poultry.  187. 

Feeding  and  Management  of  Hogs.  188. 

Some  Observations  on  the  Bulk  Hand-  189. 

ling  of  Grain   in   California.  191. 

Announcement  of  the  California   State  192. 

Dairv  Cow  Competition,    1916-18.  193. 

Irrigation    Practice   in   Growing   Small  196. 

Fruits  in  California.  197. 
Bovine  Tuberculosis. 

How  to  Operate  an  Incubator.  198. 

Control  of  the  Pear  Scab.  199. 

Home  and  Farm  Canning.  200. 
Lettuce  Growing  in  California. 

Potatoes  in  California.  201. 

White    Diarrhoea    and    Coccidiosis    of  202. 

Chicks. 

Small  Fruit  Culture  in   California.  203. 

204. 


Fundamentals    of    Sugar    Beets    under 

California    Conditions. 
The  County  Farm   Bureau. 
Feeding   Stuffs  of  Minor  Importance. 
Spraying  for  the  Control  of  Wild  Morn- 

ing-Glorv  within  the  Fog  Belt. 
The   1918  Grain  Crop. 
Fertilizing     California     Soils     for     the 

1918  Crop. 
Wheat  Culture. 
Farm   Drainage  Methods. 
Progress  Report  on  the  Marketing  and 

Distribution   of   Milk. 
Hog      Cholera      Prevention      and      the 

Serum  Treatment. 
Grain   Sorghums. 
Factors    of    Importance    in    Producing 

Milk  of  Low  Bacterial  Count. 
Control      of     the     California      Ground 

Squirrel. 
Extending  the  Area  of  Irrigated  Wheat 

in   California  for   1918. 
Infectious  Abortion  in  Cows. 
A  Flock  of  Sheep  on  the  Farm. 
Beekeeping  for  the  Fruit-Grower  and 

Small  Rancher,  or  Amateur. 
Poultry  on  the  Farm. 
Utilizing  the  Sorghums. 
Lambing  Sheds. 
Winter  Forage  Crops. 
Pruning  the  Seedless  Grapes. 
Cotton  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley. 
A  Study  of  Farm  Labor  in  California. 
Dairy  Calves  for  Veal. 
Suggestions    for    Increasing    Egg   Pro- 
duction in  a  Time  of  High-Feed  Prices. 
Syrup  from  Sweet  Sorghum. 
Onion  Growing  in  California. 
Growing   the   Fall    or    Second   Crop   of 

Potatoes  in  California. 
Helpful  Hints  to  Hog  Raisers. 
County    Organization    for    Rural    Fire 

Control. 
Peat  as  a  Manure  Substitute. 
Blackleg. 


